Have you ever stopped to wonder why some individuals stick at a structured training schedule while others give up at the first obstacle? Or why, three months into your perfectly-planned programme, your enthusiasm dwindles? The reasons for some people's persistence in following an exercise programme have been researched for many years, with no conclusive answers (see Dishman, 1993, for a review).

Among the proposed explanations, to name but a few, are: the attributes of the individual, his/her occupation, biomedical status, environ-mental factors, and time. The complex and rich phenomenon that affects all of these to some degree is motivation. As you may know, Deci and Ryan in 1985 proposed their Cognitive Evaluation Theory, which posits that intrinsic motivation is maximized when individuals feel competent and self-determining when dealing with their environment.

For you as the dedicated exerciser, this means that you have some control over the content of your exercise programme and its outcomes, rather than being dictated to by the schedule itself. Intrinsic motivation means simply the reasons for taking part in a particular activity - in our case, physical conditioning for peak performance - which come from inside the individual. More specifically, intrinsically motivated athletes participate because they find the activity inherently enjoyable, rather than for external rewards, eg, coach recognition, which is called extrinsic motivation.

I'm going to provide you with your own blueprint for a self-determined training prog-ramme to enhance your feelings of competence in your sport. In turn, the programme will provide the motivational push you may need in order to achieve your particular goals. Along the way, I'll combine proven theoretical material with some of my own practical knowledge to enable you to motivate yourself to levels you didn't think possible.


Goal-setting: get SMART
Goal-setting is a simple, yet often-misused motivational technique which can provide some structure for your training and competition programme. Goals give a focus, and the key to effective goal-setting is the S.M.A.R.T principle.

1. First, goals must be Specific. Research has shown (Locke & Latham, 1990) that specific goals work better than general 'do-your-best' goals. For example, if you're a runner, rather than professing a desire to reduce your 5K time, you should state: 'I intend to knock 20 seconds off my 5K time over the next six months'.

2. Your training target ought to be Measurable, as in the above example. Simply saying that you want to trim your 5K time is insufficient; you need some accurate means of charting your progress. This means that continuous monitoring is needed, but this can become a bore. Thus I would recommend that you build into your training schedule a regular 'measurement day' on which you test yourself in various disciplines. This can take place once a week or even once a month, but the idea of the day is to reduce your preoccupation with times and improvement. Certainly, the therapeutic benefits arising from a relaxed (non-timed) workout can help to alleviate stress, reduce symptoms of depression and leave you ready to proceed with an otherwise arduous training schedule (see Morgan, W.P., Ed, 1997, for coverage of the physical activity and mental health literature).

3. Goals should also be Adjustable. Goal-setting is a dynamic process. If, for instance, you become injured during a competitive season, you should be able to lower your goals accordingly. On the other hand, you may make such rapid progress that you can raise them. Ultimately this means that they must conform to the first two criteria: being specific and measurable.

4. Goals must be Realistic. It's all very well saying 'I want to break Daniel Komen's 5K record,' but unless you're his (as yet, undiscovered) identical twin, then that doesn't seem a realistic goal. This is an extreme example, but you also must recognise that your room for improvement shrinks as you get near your full potential, the well-known Law of Diminishing Returns. Conversely, goals should be difficult enough so that you're not struck down by acute boredom because you've achieved them too easily.

5. Finally, your training targets ought to be Time-based. If you don't give yourself a specific time frame in which the goal must be achieved, then the urgency for attainment is reduced. The previous example of trimming the 5K time by 20 seconds within six months satisfies this criterion. Try to resist the temptation to move these time constraints back to accommodate life events, such as minor injuries; the result is that the value of the time limit is negated. It is important to identify when this happens, and to set about designing new objectives with new time parameters. This way your goal-setting plan won't lose its effectiveness.

Make no mistake about it, goal-setting is a skill that needs to be mastered just like any other. But by using the following model, you can make the process a little less taxing.


The interval goal-setting model
The Interval Goal-Setting (IGS) model was devised by Frank O'Block and Frederick Evans in the early eighties to provide a quantifiable means of setting training targets. The model was developed in order to help coaches and athletes set more realistic and achievable goals, and it takes into consideration the athlete's past five performances in determining the target performances. It embodies most of the funda-mentals of SMART goal-setting. I'll guide you through the requisite steps so you need to make a minimum of effort.

First, sit down and establish one or more long-term goals for yourself, using the SMART principle of goal-setting: where do you want to be in, say, a year's time? What competition do you wish to do well in, or what long-term personal achievements do you consider to be crucial to your sense of accomplishment? Any effective goal-setting plan consists of three main types of goal: long-term, intermediate and short-term. If your long-term aim is in one year from the start of your training, then intermediate goals could be between two and nine months, and short-term within eight weeks. The IGS model works most effectively for short-term goals.

The following variables are required in the IGS model computation:
A = your average time over the last five performances
B = your best time within the last five performances
C = the difference between your average and best performances (A - B)

D = the lower boundary of your target interval
E = the interval midpoint
F = the upper boundary of the target interval

For example
Here's how to utilise the IGS model for a 5K run time;
1. Record your five last performance times - 16: 47, 16:55, 16:44, 16:46, 16:52
2. Find A, the average of the five times = 16:49
3. Find B, the best time from the five performances = 16:44
4. Find C, the difference between your average (A) and your best time (B)

C = A - B
C = 16:49 - 16:44
C = 0:05
5. Find D, the lower boundary of the interval, or the best time you recorded, ie, B. So D = 16:44
6. Find E, the interval midpoint
E = D - C
E = 16:44 - 0:05
E = 16:39
7. Find F, the interval upper boundary
F = E - C
F = 16:39 - 0:05
F = 16:34

What it all means
You now possess a collection of figures that represents your target interval. In order to clarify the computation results, you can show the model graphically. Draw a horizontal line 10cm in length; mark your average and the upper boundary as 1cm vertical lines at the right and left ends respectively, so that a reduction in time is represented by a shift along the scale from left to right. At a point 2.5cm from the left end of your line (your average time), mark another vertical line for your previous best; this forms the lower boundary of your target interval. At the halfway point along the continuum, you should draw another vertical line, to represent the midpoint of the interval.

What this shows is that the interval midpoint is realistically higher than your previous best - in fact, by as much as your previous best exceeded your average. The upper boundary of the interval is to allow for particularly exceptional performance. In the example above, a reduction in time of 10 seconds from the previous best time is quite considerable, corresponding approximately to a reduction from 5:23 per mile pace to 5:20. While this may seem only a measly abatement, let's not forget that this corresponds to a difference in performance from one week to the next!


Modifying the model
Subsequent IGS increments can be computed with each new performance after the sixth has been recorded, to ensure that fresh dynamic targets are continually being set. All you need to do to find the next interval target is to discard the previous first time from the analysis and include the sixth. This is repeated every time a new time trial is recorded. I recommend that you pin up the IGS model in a prominent place so it can be seen by your family and friends - publicly declared intentions are more likely to be stuck to than those kept hidden! I have made a sheet covered in sticky-backed plastic which acts as a wipe-off model, so I can renew my targets frequently.

To modify the IGS model to allow for increases in performance scores, such as those encountered in progressive weight training, make the following adjustments:
C becomes B -A
E becomes D + C and
F becomes E + C.

When carrying out the graphical computations, the only adjustment you need to make is to reverse the sum for each of parts 1, 3 and 4. For example, F -A instead of A - F.


Keeping S.C.O.R.E with rewards
Of course, some, if not many PP readers will also act as coaches, exercise leaders or in a similar capacity. One primary role of the coach is as a motivator, and another useful goal-setting tool for the coach is that of token rewards. These can influence performance without a goal-setting programme, or vice versa. However, when the two are used in conjunction, the possibility of performance enhancement is increased (Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham. 1981). The word 'token' is important because the rewards must not have any real value or worth for the athlete, or their motivation will ultimately be undermined, leading the extrinsic motivation. Deci (1971) explained two further salient aspects of rewards, namely that they can be 'controlling' and/or 'informational'.

If the controlling aspect of any reward is considered to be overly important by the athlete, then his or her levels of motivation will decrease, since they perceive the coach to be externally manipulating their performances. If, however, they perceive the reward as purely informative, the reward will affect their perception of their own competence. If the information implies ability, intrinsic motivation will increase. If it implies a lack of ability, then intrinsic motivation will decline. Bearing this in mind, the successful coach will follow the S.C.O.R.E. guidelines:
1 Simple. Choose a reward system that can be easily implemented. such as points, rather than major items, eg, medals. The athlete(s) can then accumulate a score for periodic evaluation
2 Consistent. Be consistent when giving out rewards and consistently target behaviours, such as a performance landing within a target interval of the IGS model
3 Observable. Pick target behaviours that can be easily evaluated, such as those encountered in the SMART programme
4 Reachable. Make sure that you choose rewarded behaviours that aren't comparative, ie, they shouldn't be dependent on the performance of others. To use sport psychology language, use rewards to encourage your athletes to strive for 'performance' or 'process' goals rather than 'outcome' goals (Duda, 1992). Performance goals are concerned with improvement in relation to one's own previous best performance, such as in the IGS model. Process goals focus on the aspects the athlete has to work on in order to succeed in attaining his or her ultimate aim, eg, a swimmer focusing on an increased arm reach in order to improve his or her swimming economy. Outcome goals are primarily concerned with winning. If coaches continually stress these goals, then their athletes are headed for disappoint-ment because of an inevitable dependence on the performance of others. Even the very best athletes, at the top of their sport, however much they aspire to win, set themselves performance and process goals in training.

5 Explanation. Finally, explain to your athlete(s) at the beginning of any particular training session (maybe a 'measurement' day) the targets to be rewarded - for instance, 'one point will be accredited to anyone performing above their average, two points to anyone reaching the target interval, three for above the midpoint...' etc. Athletes who don't perform to the specified levels go unrewarded. This is referred to as 'contingency management'.

The two acronyms that I've used in this article, SMART and SCORE, will go a long way towards ensuring that your training programme, when combined with the IGS model, develops near-maximum effectiveness. You may have noticed that they both rely on the emergence of various successes along the road to peak performance. These successes develop an overall perception of individual competence, which brings me to my final point.


A word about 'self-efficacy'
Self-efficacy (see Bandura, 1977 and 1986) represents the belief that one can successfully negotiate a chosen course of action, such as the execution of a particular sports skill. It can be described as a kind of situation-specific self-confidence. People with high SE participate more readily, work harder, persist longer when they encounter difficulties, and achieve at a higher level. In short, they are more motivated (Schunk, 1995). The general principles of effective goal-setting must be adhered to, ie, SMART goal-setting with constant feedback (perhaps in the shape of rewards), in order for efficacy beliefs to be enhanced and maintained. SE arises from a range of sources, which I've listed here in descending order of importance.

1 Past performance accomplishments - if an athlete continually experiences success in an activity, within the constraints of the training programme, then he/she will feel more able to perform that activity. Past performances are reckoned by Bandura to have a reciprocal relationship with SE - in other words, not only do past accomplishments induce greater SE, but a greater sense of SE can affect the person's subsequent performance.

2 Vicarious experience - this means seeing other people, more often peers, successfully reaching a target, thus instigating a feeling of 'If (s)he can do it, so can I!' This suggests that it makes sense to surround yourself with people whom you consider to be similar to yourself in terms of build, age, ability, etc., so that realistic positive role models abound. Obviously this could be achieved by joining a suitable club.

3 Verbal persuasion - this is a mildly effective method of inducing SE, and can easily be implemented by coaches and team mates. However, verbal persuasion is reckoned to have greater impact when it comes from someone who is perceived as a trusted and credible source of information. Feltz (1992) also considers that self-talk and imagery are forms of persuasion (but that's a subject for another time).

4 The athlete's 'psychological arousal' is also regarded by Bandura as a factor in determining his or her sense of efficacy. Heightened physiological signals such as elevated heart rate are sometimes interpreted as signs of anxiety, leading to a preoccupation with them that can damage performance (I wrote about techniques for controlling heart rate in PP issue 105).

Finally, the concepts of goal-setting and rewards can be incorporated into a holistic perception of competence, namely global SE. A SMART programme sets out difficult but attainable goals. Consequently, efficacy perceptions should increase as successive targets/objectives are reached. Similarly, the token rewards that the coach gives for desirable behaviour or performance can become tangible evidence of competence in the goal-setting programme. Use the techniques highlighted in this article and stick to their guidelines, and I can guarantee that your training will motivate you to new heights.

Daniel Bishop